Volumetric Analysis

Volumetric Analysis is a type of quantitative analysis based on the measurement of the volume of one solution required to react completely with a definite volume of another solution. By comparing the volume of two solutions, we can calculate the concentration of one solution provided that concentration of another solution is known.

Ionic Equilibrium

Substances that conduct electricity in its molten state or solution form (aqueous medium) are known as electrolytes. Ionic compound is known as electrolytes. Substances that do not conduct electricity in its molten state or solution form (aqueous medium) are known as non-electrolytes. Electrolytes that ionize almost completely in its solution form are known as strong electrolytes. Electrolytes that ionizes to small extent or ionizes incompletely in its solution form is said to be weak electrolytes.

Electrochemistry

Electrochemistry is a branch of chemistry, which deals with the relationship between electrical energy and chemical changes taking place in redox reactions. i.e., how chemical energy or how electrical energy can be used to bring about a redox reaction which is otherwise not spontaneous. It has many applications in electrolysis, energy producing cell etc.

Chemical Kinetics

Chemical kinetics is the study of reaction rates, the changes in the concentrations of reactants and products with time. With a discussion of chemical kinetics, the reaction rates or the changes in the concentrations of reactants and products with time are studied

Chemical Thermodynamics

Chemical thermodynamics is the study of how heat and work relate to each other both in changes of state and in chemical reactions. It involves a series of rules and laws that explain how heat and work, well, work, and explains which processes can happen spontaneously and which need some help

Energetics Of Chemical Reaction

All chemical reactions exchange energy with the surroundings by releasing or absorbing heat. Reactions that produce or consume gases also exchange energy as pressure-volume work. If a chemical reaction releases heat, it is exothermic. If a chemical reaction absorbs heat, it is endothermic.

Chemical Bonding and Shape of Molecules

The shape of the molecule is determined by both the total number of electron pairs (bonding and non-bonding) around the molecules central atom and the orientation of these electron pairs in the space around the central atom. 3. Electron pairs around the molecule's central atom can be shared or can be lone pairs.

Transition Elements

Transition elements are d-block elements. The elements in which the last electron enters the 'd' orbital of the penultimate shell is known as d-block. d-block elements lie in the middle of the periodic table. The elements having partly filled d-orbital in the penultimate shell in their atoms or in their stable oxidation states are called transition elements or transition metals. Transition metal compounds are paramagnetic (attracted towards magnetic field). It is due to the presence of unpaired d - electrons in metal ions.

Iron

Iron is mainly extracted from its ore haematite ( Fe2O3). The blast furnace is a tall cylindrical furnace made up of steel and internally lined with fire resistant bricks. Steel contains the intermediate amount of carbon ( 0.25% to 2.5%). When iron is exposed to moist air, a red-brown substance forms on its surface is known as rust.

Introduction To Copper

Copper is mainly extracted from sulphide ore i.e. Copper iron pyrite. Copper is used in making utensils, used in making alloys like brass {Cu+Zn}, bronze [Cu+Sn}. Copper is used as corrosive reagent as well as an antibacterial particle. Copper is important for applications such as food preparation, hospitals, coins, doorknobs and plumbing systems. Note

Introduction to Zinc

Zinc is one of the widely used metal in the entire world. Zinc is mostly used for galvanizing other metals in order to protect them from rusting. Most of it is used in die-casting which are important in automobile electrical and hardware industries. Zinc is found in several ores in the form of zinc blende and calamine. The principal mining areas are in China, Australia, and Peru. Commercially, zinc is obtained from its ores by concentrating and roasting the ore, then reducing it to zinc by heating with carbon or by electrolysis. World production is more than 11 million tons a year. Note

Introduction to Mercury

Mercury is extracted from cinnabar (HgS). Mercury is the heaviest metal at ordinary temperature. It is silvery-white liquid as well as poisonous in nature. It is used in thermometer, barometer. It is also used to make an amalgam. Mercury is an interesting thing to study upon for a very long time as a heavy liquid metal. However, because of its toxicity, many uses of mercury are being phased out or are under review.

Introduction to Silver

Silver is a member of Group IB of the periodic table, which includes copper, silver, and gold. Silver is extracted from Argentine. Silver is a good conductor of heat and electricity and is malleable and ductile. Silver nitrate forms stain on the skin due to decomposition of silver and hence, used for making tattoos. Silver nitrate is used for silvering the mirror.

Compounds Of Copper

Blue vitrol is also known as copper sulphate pentahydrate, roman vitrol, salzburg vitrol, copper sulphate 5-water etc.blue vitrol contain 25.45% copper, 4.04% hydrogen, 57.67% oxygen and 12.84% sulphur.Blue vitrol is used in electroplating as well as electrorefining of metal.

Compounds Of Zinc

Zinc oxide is white fibrous powder,insoluble in water used as white paint. Zinc oxide constitutes 19.66% of oxygen and 80.34% of zinc in it.Zinc sulphate constitute 4.92% Hydrogen, 61.20% oxygen, 11.15% sulphur and 22.74% zinc in it.

Compounds Of Mercury

Mercurous chloride, also known as calomel is a white odorless solid. Calomel contains 84.98% mercury and 15.02% chlorine within it. Mercuric chloride is a corrosive sublimate of mercury which was once used to treat syphilis. Mercuric chloride contains 26.12% chlorine and 73.88% mercury within it.

Aromatic Hydrocarbon

Aromatic hydrocarbons are cyclic, planar compounds that resemble benzene in electronic configuration and chemical behavior. Benzene has the molecular formula C6H6 and is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon. The carbon atoms in benzene are linked by six equivalent σ bonds and six π bonds.

Benzene

Benzene is a volatile chemical that is produced commercially from coal and petroleum sources. It is among the most abundantly produced chemicals in the U.S. and is used extensively as an industrial solvent, in the synthesis of numerous chemicals, and as an additive in unleaded gasoline (ATSDR, 2007).

Definition And Types Of Haloalkane

Organic halogen compound is the hydrocarbon derivatives obtained by replacing one or more atoms by the corresponding number of halogen atom.The halogen compound obtained by the replacement of one or more hydrogen atom of aliphatic hydrocarbon are known as aliphatic halogen compound.Haloalkanes are the organic compound formed by replacing a hydrogen atom by a halogen atom. They have general structure formula R-X, where R is an alkyl group and X is halogen (Cl, Br, and I). In homologous series, haloalkane is represented by CnH2n+1.X.

Nomenclature And Isomerism Of Haloalkane

In the commons system , the mono halogen derivatives of alkanes are called alkyl halides.In the IUPIC system, the mono halogen derivatives of alkanes are named as haloalkanes, I,e the name can be obtained by prefixing the word halo to the name of the alkane corresponding to longest continuous carbon chain holding the halogen atom. Chain isomerism arises due to the different structure of carbon skeleton in the largest chain .. Position isomers are formed due to different positions of functional groups or substation

Preparation Of Haloalkane

Alkanes are good starting material to prepare haloalkanes. When they are treated with sunlight, heat or suitable catalyst, haloalkanes are obtained. This reaction is called halogenation. CH3−CH3+Cl2−→hvCH3CH2Cl=(Chloroethane)+HCl Fluoro is not generally prepared by halogenation because it is a highly reactive element and forms carbon as.

Physical And Chemical Property Of Haloalkanes.

Laboratory Preparation Of Chloroform.

Chloroform is a sweet smelling liquid having freezing point -630C. and has boiling point 610C. it is the colourless non-flammable liquid that is insoluble in water.On an industrial scale,chloroform is prepared by chlorination of methane.Pure chloroform is prepared by heating choral hydrate with a strong solution of caustic soda.In round bottom flask, bleaching powder paste is prepared by adding 100g of bleaching powder to 200 ml of water and crushing the residue of bleaching powder in a mortar with the help of a pestle. the solution is then filtered into 1 1000ml of the round-bottomed flask.The chloroform is then dried over anhydrous CaCl2 and redistilled between the temperature 600C-650C.

Physical And Chemical Property Of Chloroform.

Some of the physical property are It is insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvent. Although chloroform is non-poisonous, if forms a poisonous compound (phosgene) in air.Chloroform is stored in a dark brown bottle with a tight lid so as to prevent the formation of poisonous phosgene.When phenol is heated with chloroform and aqueous alkaline at temperature 60-700C, O-hydroxy benzaldehyde (Salicylaldehyde) is formed as the chief organic product. This reaction is termed as Riemer-Tiemann reaction.

Preparation Of DDT, BHC And Iodoform

DDT is a powerful contact insecticide and is widely used for killing mosquito and other insects.It is an odourless white crystalline solid with melting point 1090C. It is almost insoluble in water but readily dissolves in benzene, kerosene oil, alcohol, etc The mixture of stereoisomeric hexachlorides is an active component in BHC is γ isomer, called gammaxene or lindane.It is used as in antiseptic for dressing wounds and this nature is due to iodine that it liberates. However, of its unpleasant smell, it has now been replaced by better antiseptic.

Haloarenes and Method of preparation of Haloarenes

Haloarenes are the halogen derivatives of aromatic hydrocarbons in which halogen is directly attached to the ring. these are obtained by replacing hydrogen by alpha-halogen atom.

Physical and chemical property of Haloarenes

Haloarenes are colourless liquid or crystalline solids.Haloarenes are the non-polar compound which cannot form the hydrogen bond with water molecules. As a result, there are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.Among the isomeric haloarenes para isomer due to its symmetrical structure,fits more property in its crystal lattice than O-and M isomer. Hence, P-haloarenes have the highest Melting point.

Alcohol And It's Types

Alcohols are hydroxyl derivative of alkanes containing –OH as a functional group.These compounds are obtained from alkanes replacing hydrogen atom by a hydroxyl group.An alcohol containing two -OH group is called dihydric alcohol.

Isomerism of Alcohol

Alcohols exhibits following three types of isomerism. They are Chain isomerism.Position isomerism. Functional isomerism.In the common system of nomenclature,alcohols are named as. Alkyl+alcohol=Alkylalcohol Structural formula of tertiary butanol is given below and its IUPAC name is 2.methyl propane-2ol

General method of preparation of Alcohol

Industrial method of preparation of alcohol

There are three methods to get alcohols, industrially. all these methods utilise raw materials which can be obtained from petroleum, natural gas, coal and biomass. The methods are outlined below.By hydration of alkenes. By oxo process. By fermentation of carbohydrates.

Victor Meyers method of distinguishing Primary,Secondary and Tertiary alcohol

Victor Meyer’s method is one of the most applied methods for the identification of alcohols. In this method, the colour of the resulting solution is observed after the unknown alcohol is submitted to a series of chemical analysis.

Physical property of alcohol

Alcohol can form the hydrogen bond with the water molecule. Therefore, they are soluble in polar solvents like water. Their solubility , however, decreases with increase in a size of an alkyl group.Ethene is oxidised in the air in presence of catalyst and temperature to produce epoxy ethane which on acid hydrolysis gives ethylene glycol.Fats and oils are the esters of long chain fatty acids known as triglycerides. These esters can be hydrolyzed both in acidic and basic medium to manufacture glycerol. Alkali hydrolysis of these esters produces glycerol and soap. This process is known as saponification.

Phenol and Nomenclature of Phenol

Phenols are hydroxy derivatives of benzene obtained by replacing one of the hydrogens of benzene by a hydroxy group. They are represented by general formula Ar-OH, where Ar is phenyl,substituted phenyl or some other aryl group (eg, naphthyl,phenanthryl, etc.Phenols are generally named as derivatives of the simplest member of the family,i,e phenol. In the case of phenols having only one additional substituent, the relative position is usually indicated by letters o-(for 1,2-) m- (for(1,3-) and P-for (1,4-). However, numerals are used if more than two substituents are present on the ring.

Method Of Preparation Of Phenol

Most of the industrial methods used for preparing phenols are same as used in the laboratory. However, certain phenols(including the most important one, Phenol) are produced commercially by some special methods which are quite inconvenient to use as laboratory method.Several methods have been used to synthesised phenols commercially. Some important methods for the commercial production are described as above.

Physical Property Of Phenol

The presence of -OH group in phenol permits the formation of intermolecular H-bond with water molecule whereas hydrophobic phenyl group tends to decrease the solubility. The net results are that phenol is slightly soluble in water.n O-nitro phenol, intramolecular H- bond is formed between H of -OH group and O of an NO2 group as shown but in P-nitro phenol, no intermolecular H-bond is formed. So, in P-nitrophenol intermolecular h bond is formed which increase its boiling point.

Properties, uses tests of ethanol or ethyl alcohol

Ethanol is the most important and the earliest representative of the class and is popularly referred to as simply alcohol. It is the exhilarating principle of all wines and is thus named as spirits of wines. technically, it is known as grain alcohol since it often manufactured from starchy grains.It also dissolves inorganic substances like caustic soda, caustic potash, sulphur, phosphorous etc. When taken orally in small dosages,alcohol is the good stimulant. The alcohol obtained from the fractional distillation of the fermented liquor contains about 95% of ethanol and is called industrial alcohol. It is also known as rectified spirit and is used for industrial purposes.

Aliphatic Nitro Compounds

In the above note information about the nitro compounds of aliphatic nitro compounds or Nitro alkanes. Nitro compounds are classified as primary (10), secondary (20), tertiary (30) nitroalkanes according to the nitro group( - NO2) is bonded to primary (10), secondary (20), tertiary (30) carbon atom respectively.

Aromatic Nitrocompounds

The above note is information about the nitro compounds,and The purpose of controlling temperature is to prevent further nitration of nitrobenzene is to prevent further nitration of nitrobenzene to m-nitrobenzene.It is defined as the chemical, physical and reduction in acidic medium

Structure of Glucose and Fructose and Functions of carbohydrates

The symbols D and (+) represent the configuration and optical rotation of the molecule respectively. The form of glucose in which the –OH group at C-5, i.e. farthest asymmetric carbon atom from carboxyl carbon, lies on the right, is called as D-glucose and if it lies on the left, the form is called as L-glucose. Glucose is an optically active compound as it possesses four asymmetric carbon atoms or the chiral centers. It may possess two optical isomers, one which rotates the plane-polarized light to the right is called as dextrorotatory and the another which rotates the plane of polarized light to the left is called as levorotatory glucose.

Carbohydrates

The carbohydrates which do not break down into any simple molecules upon hydrolysis are called as monosaccharides. So, monosaccharides are simplest carbohydrates and represent a complete carbohydrate unit. These may contain 3 to 6 carbons atom in their molecules and can be absorbed directly into the bloodstream of living beings. About 20 monosaccharides occur normally. For example glucose (C6H12O6), galactose, fructose rodpse, glucose etc are some common monosaccharides.

Introduction of biomolecule and Carbohydrate and its function

The branch of science that deals with the study of the chemical composition of the living organism and also the various chemical changes take place within them is known as biochemistry.The metabolism , biomolecules and biochemical in the presence of the suitable catalyst called enzyme play an important role in the living system for regulation excretion, secretion and for other purposes.The term carbohydrate denotes hydrate of carbon and can be represented as general formula Cx(H2O)y.