1.1. Tenses

Present Tense

1. Simple Present:
   • Formula: Subject + base form of the verb (add “s” or “es” for third person singular)
   • Example: “She walks.”
2. Present Continuous:
   • Formula: Subject + is/am/are + verb + -ing
   • Example: “She is walking.”
3. Present Perfect:
   • Formula: Subject + has/have + past participle
   • Example: “She has walked.”
4. Present Perfect Continuous:
   • Formula: Subject + has/have been + verb + -ing
   • Example: “She has been walking.”

Past Tense

1. Simple Past:
   • Formula: Subject + past form of the verb
   • Example: “She walked.”
2. Past Continuous:
   • Formula: Subject + was/were + verb + -ing
   • Example: “She was walking.”
3. Past Perfect:
   • Formula: Subject + had + past participle
   • Example: “She had walked.”
4. Past Perfect Continuous:
   • Formula: Subject + had been + verb + -ing
   • Example: “She had been walking.”

Future Tense

1. Simple Future:
   • Formula: Subject + will + base form of the verb
   • Example: “She will walk.”
2. Future Continuous:
   • Formula: Subject + will be + verb + -ing
   • Example: “She will be walking.”
3. Future Perfect:
   • Formula: Subject + will have + past participle
   • Example: “She will have walked.”
4. Future Perfect Continuous:
   • Formula: Subject + will have been + verb + -ing
   • Example: “She will have been walking.”

1.2. Modals

Modals are auxiliary verbs used to express ability, possibility, necessity, permission, or obligation. Here are some common modals and their uses:

1. Can: Indicates ability or permission.
   • “I can swim.” (ability)
   • “Can I leave early?” (permission)
2. Could: Indicates past ability, possibility, or polite requests.
   • “I could swim when I was younger.” (past ability)
   • “Could you help me?” (polite request)
3. May: Indicates possibility or permission (more formal).
   • “It may rain tomorrow.” (possibility)
   • “May I use your phone?” (permission)
4. Might: Indicates a lower probability than “may.”
   • “We might go to the party.”
5. Must: Indicates necessity or strong obligation.
   • “You must wear a seatbelt.” (obligation)
6. Should: Indicates advice or recommendation.
   • “You should see a doctor.”
7. Shall: Used for offers or suggestions, mainly in British English.
   • “Shall we dance?”
8. Will: Indicates future actions or intentions.
   • “I will call you tomorrow.”
9. Would: Indicates polite requests, hypothetical situations, or past habits.
   • “Would you like some tea?” (polite request)
   • “If I were you, I would apologize.” (hypothetical situation)

1.3. Questions, multi-words, verbs and verb structures

1. Questions

Questions can be formed in several ways, depending on the type of question being asked.

Yes/No Questions: These can be answered with “yes” or “no.”

• Formula: Auxiliary verb + subject + main verb + (rest of the sentence)?
  • Example: “Are you coming?”

Wh- Questions: These questions begin with question words (who, what, where, when, why, how).

• Formula: Question word + auxiliary verb + subject + main verb + (rest of the sentence)?
  • Example: “What are you doing?”

Tag Questions: These are short questions added to the end of a statement.

• Formula: Statement + comma + auxiliary verb + subject?
  • Example: “You’re coming, aren’t you?”

2. Multi-Word Verbs

Multi-word verbs consist of a main verb and one or more particles (prepositions or adverbs) that change the meaning of the verb.

Types of Multi-Word Verbs:

• Phrasal Verbs: Main verb + particle.
  • Example: “Give up” (to stop trying).
• Prepositional Verbs: Main verb + preposition.
  • Example: “Look after” (to take care of).
• Phrasal-Prepositional Verbs: Main verb + adverb + preposition.
  • Example: “Put up with” (to tolerate).

3. Verb Structures

Verb structures can vary based on how verbs are used in sentences. Here are some common structures:

1. Simple Form:
   • Verb alone.
   • Example: “She runs.”
2. Continuous Form:
   • Verb “to be” + verb + -ing.
   • Example: “She is running.”
3. Perfect Form:
   • “Have” + past participle.
   • Example: “She has run.”
4. Perfect Continuous Form:
   • “Have been” + verb + -ing.
   • Example: “She has been running.”
5. Infinitive Form:
   • To + base form of the verb.
   • Example: “To run.”

1.4. Determiners and prepositions

1. Determiners

Determiners are words that introduce nouns and clarify what the noun refers to. They can indicate specificity, quantity, possession, and more. Here are the main types of determiners:

1. Articles:
   • Definite Article: “the” (specific item).
     • Example: “The book on the table is mine.”
   • Indefinite Articles: “a” and “an” (non-specific item).
     • Example: “I saw a dog in the park.”
2. Demonstratives:
   • “this,” “that,” “these,” “those” (indicate specific items).
   • Example: “This apple is fresh.”
3. Possessives:
   • “my,” “your,” “his,” “her,” “its,” “our,” “their” (indicate ownership).
   • Example: “Her car is red.”
4. Quantifiers:
   • Words that indicate quantity.
   • Examples: “some,” “many,” “few,” “all,” “several.”
   • Example: “Many students attended the lecture.”
5. Interrogatives:
   • Used in questions.
   • Examples: “Which,” “what,” “whose.”
   • Example: “Which book do you prefer?”

2. Prepositions

Prepositions are words that show relationships between nouns (or pronouns) and other words in a sentence. They often indicate time, place, direction, or manner. Here are some common prepositions:

1. Prepositions of Place:
   • “in,” “on,” “at,” “under,” “above,” “between,” “near.”
   • Example: “The cat is on the roof.”
2. Prepositions of Time:
   • “in,” “on,” “at,” “before,” “after,” “during.”
   • Example: “We will meet at 5 PM.”
3. Prepositions of Direction:
   • “to,” “toward,” “into,” “across,” “through.”
   • Example: “She walked to the store.”
4. Prepositions of Manner:
   • “by,” “with,” “like.”
   • Example: “He solved the problem by thinking creatively.”
5. Complex Prepositions:
   • Phrases made up of multiple words.
   • Examples: “in front of,” “next to,” “in spite of.”
   • Example: “She sat in front of the computer.”

1.5. Adjectives, adverbs,

1. Adjectives

Adjectives are words that describe or modify nouns. They provide information about qualities, quantities, or states of being.

Types of Adjectives:

1. Descriptive Adjectives: Describe qualities or characteristics.
   • Example: “The blue car is fast.”
2. Quantitative Adjectives: Indicate quantity.
   • Example: “There are three apples on the table.”
3. Demonstrative Adjectives: Point to specific nouns.
   • Example: “This book is interesting.”
4. Possessive Adjectives: Show ownership.
   • Example: “Her dog is playful.”
5. Interrogative Adjectives: Used in questions.
   • Example: “Which dress do you like?”
6. Comparative and Superlative Adjectives: Used to compare.
   • Comparative: “taller,” “faster” (e.g., “She is taller than her brother.”)
   • Superlative: “tallest,” “fastest” (e.g., “She is the tallest in her class.”)

2. Adverbs

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They often describe how, when, where, or to what extent an action is performed.

Types of Adverbs:

1. Adverbs of Manner: Describe how an action is performed.
   • Example: “She sings beautifully.”
2. Adverbs of Time: Indicate when an action occurs.
   • Example: “He will arrive tomorrow.”
3. Adverbs of Place: Indicate where an action occurs.
   • Example: “She looked everywhere.”
4. Adverbs of Frequency: Indicate how often an action occurs.
   • Example: “They usually go for a walk.”
5. Adverbs of Degree: Indicate the intensity or degree of an action, adjective, or another adverb.
   • Example: “She is very talented.”
6. Interrogative Adverbs: Used in questions.
   • Example: “How are you feeling?”

Comparison Between Adjectives and Adverbs

• Adjectives modify nouns.
  • Example: “The happy dog.”
• Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
  • Example: “The dog barks loudly.”

1.6. Passive and conditionals

1. Passive Voice

The passive voice is used when the focus is on the action or the recipient of the action rather than on who is performing the action. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action.

Structure of Passive Voice:

• Formula: Subject + form of “to be” + past participle + (by + agent)
  • Example: “The book was written by the author.”

Tenses in Passive Voice:

• Present Simple: “The car is washed.”
• Past Simple: “The car was washed.”
• Present Continuous: “The car is being washed.”
• Past Continuous: “The car was being washed.”
• Present Perfect: “The car has been washed.”
• Past Perfect: “The car had been washed.”
• Future Simple: “The car will be washed.”

2. Conditional Sentences

Conditional sentences express hypothetical situations and their consequences. They often follow an “if” clause.

Types of Conditional Sentences:

1. Zero Conditional: Used for general truths or laws of nature.
   • Structure: If + present simple, present simple.
   • Example: “If you heat ice, it melts.”
2. First Conditional: Used for real and possible situations in the future.
   • Structure: If + present simple, will + base verb.
   • Example: “If it rains, I will stay home.”
3. Second Conditional: Used for unreal or hypothetical situations in the present or future.
   • Structure: If + past simple, would + base verb.
   • Example: “If I had a million dollars, I would travel the world.”
4. Third Conditional: Used for unreal situations in the past.
   • Structure: If + past perfect, would have + past participle.
   • Example: “If I had known, I would have come.”
5. Mixed Conditionals: Combine elements from the second and third conditionals, often expressing a past condition with a present result.
   • Structure: If + past perfect, would + base verb (or vice versa).
   • Example: “If I had studied harder, I would have a better job now.”

1.7. Word formation and sentences

1. Word Formation

Word formation refers to the processes used to create new words in a language. Here are some common methods:

1. Affixation: Adding prefixes or suffixes to base words.
   • Prefixes: Added to the beginning of a word.
     • Example: “un-” in “unhappy.”
   • Suffixes: Added to the end of a word.
     • Example: “-ness” in “happiness.”
2. Compounding: Combining two or more whole words to create a new word.
   • Example: “toothbrush” (tooth + brush).
3. Conversion: Changing the grammatical category of a word without altering its form.
   • Example: “to run” (verb) becomes “a run” (noun).
4. Blending: Merging parts of two words to create a new one.
   • Example: “brunch” (breakfast + lunch).
5. Acronyms and Initialisms: Forming words from the initial letters of a series of words.
   • Acronym: “NASA” (National Aeronautics and Space Administration).
   • Initialism: “USA” (United States of America).
6. Backformation: Creating a new word by removing a suffix from an existing word.
   • Example: “edit” from “editor.”

2. Sentence Structures

Sentences can be classified based on their structure and purpose. Here are the main types:

Simple Sentences: Contain a single independent clause (subject + verb).

• Example: “The dog barks.”

Compound Sentences: Contain two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).

• Example: “The dog barks, and the cat meows.”

Complex Sentences: Contain one independent clause and at least one dependent (subordinate) clause.

• Example: “The dog barks when the mailman arrives.”

Compound-Complex Sentences: Contain at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.

• Example: “The dog barks when the mailman arrives, and the cat hides under the couch.”

Sentence Components

• Subject: The doer of the action or the topic of the sentence.
  • Example: “The cat”
• Predicate: The part of the sentence that tells something about the subject (verb + complements).
  • Example: “sleeps on the mat.”
• Objects: Receive the action of the verb (direct or indirect).
  • Direct Object: “I saw the movie.”
  • Indirect Object: “I gave him a book.”