Cognitive Theories
Cognitive theories focus on understanding how people process, store, and retrieve information to learn and apply knowledge. These theories view learning as an internal process involving memory, thinking, problem-solving, and understanding. Cognitive theories are essential in education because they help explain how learners construct meaning and how information is encoded, retained, and recalled.
3.1 Kohler’s Insightful Learning
Cognitivism is the study in psychology that focuses on mental processes, including how people perceive, think, remember, learn, solve problems, and direct their attention to one stimulus rather than another. The psychologist following the cognitive theories are also grouped as Gestalt psychology The fundamental concepts of cognitivism involve how we think and gain knowledge. It involves examining learning, memory, problem solving skills, and intelligence.
One of the well known cognitive theories of learning is Gestalt theory. Gestalt theory was developed by a group of German psychologists.
– Max Wertheimer (father of Gestalt theory)
– Wolfgang Kohler, and
– Kurt Kaffka
– Kurt Lewin
‘Gestalt’ is a German word which means ‘whole’ or total pattern. This school (knowledge group) believes that the ‘whole’ is more important than the parts. So learning also takes place as a whole’. One of the active members of the Gestalt group was Wolfgang Kohler. Based on the experiments, he developed a theory of learning which is called Insightful learning.
They expressed their dissatisfaction with the behaviorist approach of learning. They thought that ‘learning is a more conscious effort of the individual rather than a mere product of habit formation or a machine-like stimulus-response connection. According to them the learner does not only respond to a stimulus, but he or she mentally processes what he receives or perceives. So, learning is a purposive, explorative and creative activity instead of trial and error. According to them, things cannot be understood by the study of its component parts only, but actually it is understood only by perceiving it as a totality or whole.
Gestalt theory focused on the mind’s understanding. The word ‘Gestalt’ has no direct translation in English, but refers to “placed, or put together”; Gestalt theorists followed the basic principle that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. In other words, the whole (a picture, a car) carried a different and altogether greater meaning than its individual components.
Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967) is one of German Gestalt psychologists. He is one of the founders of psychological school (a group) called Gestalt psychology. Other members of the group were Wertheimer, and Koffka.
Kohler conducted many experiments with his chimpanzee ‘Sulthan’ at island of Teniriffa in Africa ’. These experiments are the illustration of Learning by Insight. His studies, “The Mentality of Apes”, were published in 1917. In this study, Köhler almost spent all his time on a
group composed of nine monkeys. They were kept in a cage for the purpose of research.
In one experiment Köhler placed a banana outside the cage of a hungry chimpanzee, Sultan (the smartest ape). There were two bamboo sticks left inside. Sultan made many attempts to obtain the banana but it failed. It sat down in despair. But, after sometime it suddenly got up with a sudden bright idea. So, the chimpanzee tried to reach the banana by joining the two sticks Although left, Sultan accidentally joined the sticks, observed the result, and immediately ran with the longer tool to retrieve the banana. When the experiment was repeated, Sultan joined the two sticks and solved the problem immediately.
In another experiment the chimpanzee was shut up in a room with unsalable walls. A banana was hanging with the ceiling. The animal was hungry. He jumped at the fruit but it was too high. He left the efforts and sat down. There was a box lying in the corner of the room. The animal began to play with the box. He then suddenly got up and pushed the box to the centre of the room below the banana, jumped from it and got the fruit. The apes solved the problem of reaching the bananas hanging on the ceiling by means of putting boxes as a pile and climbing on this pile to get the bananas.
In another experiment Kohler made this problem a little more complicated that two or three boxes were required to reach the banana.
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From the experiments, Kohler found that chimpanzees could use insight learning instead of trial-and error to solve problems. The experiments demonstrated the role of intelligence and cognitive abilities in higher learning and problem solving situations. Based on his observations, Kohler concluded that apes (monkeys) did not carry out these missions through trial and error, but they used “introspection” and he explained the behaviour of apes’ problem solving in terms of cognitive processes. According to Kohler, these animals can learn how to solve problem just like humans. These behaviours of apes are carried out through a mental process. One of the most important contributions of Gestalt theory to education is the application of introspective problem solving and productive thinking.
According to Kohler, Learning by conditioning is common to all animals and human beings and useful for early education. But learning by insight is suitable only for intelligent creatures both human and animals and useful for higher learning. It is a kind of learning done by observation, by perceiving the relationship and understanding the situation.
When an individual or intelligent animal faces a problem, he thinks and looks over the whole situation and tries to find out solutions. He tries to get some clues to solve the problem, uses methods to follow and finds a general awareness of the results of his actions. Then suddenly, he arrives at a solution through his mental exercises. But for this, the total view of the situation should be exposed to the individual who must feel urgency of the problem and its solution.
Kohler said that insightful learning is a type of learning or problem solving that happens all- of-a-sudden through understanding the relationships of various parts of a problem rather than through trial and error. Insightful learning is also known as Gestalt learning which means that learning is concerned with the whole individual and arises from the interaction of an individual with his situations or environment. Through this interaction emerge new forms of perception, imagination and ideas which altogether constitute insight.
Characteristics of insightful learning
The common features of the experiments on insightful learning are as follows:
- The nature of the experimental situation is very important for insightful learning. The organism must be able to perceive the relationships among all relevant parts of the problem before insight can occur.
- The organism reacts to the whole situation, not to its component parts.
- The organism perceives the relationships between means and the goal, and restructures the perceptual field.
- Insight follows a period of trial and error behavior. In the trial-and-error period, the organism does not, however/exhibit blind and random attacks as shown by Thorndike’s cat. On the other hand, it tests behavioral hypotheses in the form of accepting some and discarding others.
- The insightful solution comes all on a sudden.
- Once the insightful solution is reached, the organism shows high degree of retention andtransfer to similar problems.
- Insight is closely related to the organism’s capacity to learn. The capacity for insightful learning depends on age, experience, and individual differences.
- Understanding plays important role in insight learning.
- Insight is related with higher order animals and not with inferior animals.
- Age influences insight learning. Adults are better learner than children.
- Past experience and perceptual organization is important in perception.
Educational Implications of (Insight learning) Gestalt Theory
- Problem Solving Approach: This theory emphasizes that as the learner is able to solve problems by his insight, meaningful learning, learning by understanding, reasoning, etc. must be encouraged in the school.
- From Whole to Part: The teacher should present the subject matter as a whole to facilitate insight learning.
- Integrated Approach: While planning curriculum, gestalt principles should be given due consideration. A particular subject should not be treated as the mere collection of isolated facts. It should be closely integrated into a whole.
- Importance of Motivation: the teacher should arouse the child’s curiosity, interest and
motivation. He should gain full attention of the whole class before teaching.
- Goal Orientation: As learning is a purposeful and goal-oriented task, the learner has to be well acquainted with these objectives. He should be fully familiar with the goals and purposes of every task.
- Emphasis on Understanding: It has made learning an intelligent task requiring mental abilities than a stimulus – response association. So the learner must be given opportunities for using his mental abilities.
- Checking of Previous Experiences: As insight depends upon the previous experiences of the learner, the teacher must check the previous experiences of the child and relate them with the new learning situation.
- Student should be exposed to all elements of a problem in order to acquire introspective problem-solving behaviour. The appropriate atmosphere should be prepared for the student to understand the nature of the problem, explore the relations between its elements and organize the possible ways of solution. For this purpose, curiosity of the student is moved.
- According to Gestalt theorists, an individual perceives the whole as a meaningful and organized whole, not through separating the whole into parts. Then, he/she discovers the relations between parts and the whole. Moreover, relations of simplicity, similarity, proximity, and continuity, shape- base are important in perception. In this case, the teacher should give the basic framework of the lesson as an organized and meaningful whole to the students at the beginning of the term, and then should go into details. Thus, the teacher can help students to understand the function of the lesson and relations between the units as a whole.
3.2 Information Processing Theory.
Information Processing Theory is a cognitive approach that likens the human mind to a computer, focusing on how individuals process, store, and retrieve information. This theory provides insights into how learning occurs, how information is absorbed and retained, and how it can be effectively recalled when needed. Developed in the mid-20th century, it remains a foundational theory in understanding how memory works and how students learn.
3.2.1 Basic elements: Sensory register, short-term memory/store, long- term memory/store
1. Sensory Register (Sensory Memory):
- Function: The sensory register is the initial point of contact for incoming information. It briefly holds sensory information (sights, sounds, smells, etc.) that we encounter in the environment.
- Duration: Information is held in the sensory register for a very short time, typically less than a second for visual information and 2-4 seconds for auditory information.
- Capacity: It has a large capacity but retains information for only a brief period unless attention is given to it.
- Process: Sensory information that is attended to moves into short-term memory, while unattended information is quickly forgotten.
- Educational Implication: Teachers need to capture student attention because if the information in the sensory register is not attended to, it will be lost. Visual aids, audio cues, and varying instructional techniques can help grab and hold students’ attention.
Example: When a teacher shows a diagram on the board, the image enters the students’ sensory register. If they focus on it, it will move to short-term memory; otherwise, it will fade quickly.
2. Short-Term Memory (STM) or Working Memory:
- Function: Short-term memory, often referred to as working memory, is where information is actively processed. It temporarily holds and manipulates information for decision-making, problem-solving, and comprehension.
- Duration: Information in short-term memory lasts about 15-30 seconds unless it is actively rehearsed or transferred to long-term memory.
- Capacity: Short-term memory is limited in capacity, typically holding about 5-9 pieces of information at a time. This capacity can be increased through strategies like chunking, where information is grouped into meaningful units.
- Rehearsal: Information needs to be rehearsed (repeated or manipulated) in order to remain in working memory or be transferred to long-term memory.
- Educational Implication: Teachers should avoid overwhelming students by presenting too much information at once. They should organize information into chunks and use repetition or practice to help students retain the material.
Example: When a teacher gives students a math problem to solve, they hold the numbers and operations in short-term memory while they calculate the answer. Without rehearsal or the proper use of strategies, this information could be lost within seconds.
3. Long-Term Memory (LTM):
- Function: Long-term memory is where information is stored permanently for future retrieval. It holds knowledge, skills, experiences, and memories.
- Duration: Information in long-term memory can last from minutes to a lifetime, depending on how well it is encoded and retrieved.
- Capacity: Long-term memory has an unlimited capacity, meaning it can store vast amounts of information indefinitely.
- Types of Long-Term Memory:
- Declarative (Explicit) Memory: Memory of facts and events. It includes:
- Semantic Memory: General world knowledge (e.g., knowing that Paris is the capital of France).
- Episodic Memory: Personal experiences or events (e.g., remembering your last birthday party).
- Procedural (Implicit) Memory: Memory of how to perform tasks, such as riding a bike or typing on a keyboard.
- Retrieval: Information stored in long-term memory can be retrieved when needed. Retrieval is more effective when the material is well-organized and connected to existing knowledge.
- Educational Implication: Teachers should focus on helping students encode information deeply by using meaningful connections, mnemonics, and real-world applications. Retrieval practice, like quizzes and spaced repetition, helps strengthen long-term retention.
Example: A student who has studied and rehearsed multiplication tables over time stores that information in long-term memory and can retrieve it quickly when solving math problems.
Summary of the Basic Elements:
- Sensory Register: Initial stage where sensory input is received and held briefly.
- Short-Term Memory: Temporary storage for actively processing information, with limited capacity and duration.
- Long-Term Memory: Permanent storage for knowledge and experiences, with unlimited capacity and duration.
By understanding how each of these elements functions, educators can design instructional strategies that align with how the brain processes information, ensuring better learning outcomes for students.
3.2.2 Educational implications of information processing theory.
The Information Processing Theory offers valuable insights into how students learn, process, and retain information. Applying this theory in educational settings can enhance teaching effectiveness and improve students’ learning outcomes. Here are the educational implications of Information Processing Theory:
1. Attention and Focus:
- Implication: Learning begins with attention. Teachers must actively engage students’ attention to ensure that information enters the sensory register and moves into short-term memory.
- Application: Use strategies to capture and sustain attention, such as:
- Varying tone and pace during lectures.
- Using multimedia presentations (visuals, videos, sound).
- Asking thought-provoking questions.
- Incorporating movement or active learning tasks to break monotony.
2. Managing Cognitive Load:
- Implication: Working memory has a limited capacity. Overloading it with too much information at once can hinder learning.
- Application:
- Chunking: Break information into smaller, manageable chunks (e.g., teaching a concept in steps rather than all at once).
- Scaffolding: Gradually increase the complexity of information, providing support at the start and gradually removing it as students become more proficient.
- Clear Instructions: Present instructions in clear, concise language to reduce extraneous cognitive load.
3. Rehearsal and Repetition:
- Implication: Information in short-term memory needs to be rehearsed (mentally repeated or practiced) to move into long-term memory.
- Application:
- Encourage students to repeat information through activities such as group discussions, summarization, or note-taking.
- Use spaced repetition: Review material at increasing intervals over time to reinforce learning and strengthen retention.
- Employ active recall strategies like quizzes, flashcards, or self-assessment to enhance rehearsal and memory retention.
4. Encoding Strategies:
- Implication: Effective encoding helps students move information from short-term to long-term memory. Deeper processing leads to better retention.
- Application:
- Use elaboration techniques by asking students to explain concepts in their own words or link new information to what they already know.
- Encourage meaningful learning by relating topics to real-world applications, which helps students store information more effectively.
- Promote the use of mnemonics and visual aids like mind maps, diagrams, and charts to aid in the organization of information and improve encoding.
5. Promoting Retrieval Practice:
- Implication: Information stored in long-term memory needs to be retrieved effectively for students to apply it in problem-solving or assessments.
- Application:
- Use regular quizzes and tests to encourage retrieval practice, which strengthens the ability to recall information.
- Incorporate cues or hints to prompt retrieval, especially in early learning stages.
- Provide opportunities for students to teach the material to others, as explaining concepts improves their ability to retrieve and apply the knowledge.
6. Improving Long-Term Retention:
- Implication: Long-term memory holds information indefinitely, but this memory must be built and reinforced over time.
- Application:
- Incorporate distributed practice: Instead of cramming all learning into one session, space out learning over time.
- Use interleaving (mixing different types of problems or subjects in a learning session), which challenges students to apply what they have learned in various contexts, strengthening retention.
- Reinforce learning through project-based activities that require the application of long-term knowledge in meaningful ways.
7. Utilizing Multiple Modalities:
- Implication: Different students process information through different sensory modalities (visual, auditory, kinesthetic).
- Application:
- Present information using multiple formats (visual aids, auditory presentations, hands-on activities) to cater to various learning styles.
- Use demonstrations and real-world experiences to give students tangible connections to abstract concepts.
- Incorporate interactive activities that engage students physically and mentally, such as role-playing or collaborative projects.
8. Providing Feedback and Reflection:
- Implication: Feedback helps students reflect on their learning and make necessary adjustments, leading to better memory encoding and retrieval.
- Application:
- Offer immediate, constructive feedback after assessments or tasks to help students correct mistakes and reinforce correct information.
- Encourage self-reflection by having students review their own work and identify areas for improvement, promoting metacognitive skills.
9. Addressing Learning Differences:
- Implication: Students process and store information differently, so teaching methods should be differentiated to meet diverse needs.
- Application:
- Use personalized learning approaches where instructional strategies are tailored to individual student needs, ensuring optimal cognitive load and retention.
- Provide adaptive technology or tools (like text-to-speech software) for students who struggle with traditional methods of information processing.
10. Building Metacognitive Awareness:
- Implication: Students who are aware of how they learn (metacognition) can regulate their own learning process more effectively.
- Application:
- Teach students metacognitive strategies such as setting goals, monitoring their own understanding, and adjusting their study methods as needed.
- Encourage the use of study plans and self-assessment tools so that students can reflect on their learning processes and outcomes.