Basic Concept of Sociology

1.1 Definition of Sociology

Sociology is not just about observing people casually—it is a systematic and scientific study of human society, social relationships, and social behavior. It explores how people interact with one another, how groups and communities are organized, and how individuals influence and are influenced by the society around them. Sociology examines patterns of behavior, social norms, values, institutions, and the structure of society to understand why people act the way they do in different social contexts. It provides insight into the complexities of human life, helping us explain social phenomena like inequality, family structures, education, politics, and cultural practices.

Many scholars have contributed to defining sociology, each offering a unique perspective:

Auguste Comte (1798–1857): Known as the father of sociology, Comte believed that society could be studied scientifically, just like natural sciences such as physics or chemistry. He defined sociology as the science of society that studies both social order (how societies maintain stability) and social progress (how societies change over time). Comte’s main idea was that by applying scientific methods to social phenomena, humans could understand society better and use this knowledge to improve it.

Émile Durkheim (1858–1917): Durkheim focused on social facts—the norms, values, laws, and institutions that exist outside individuals but strongly influence their behavior. He defined sociology as the study of these social phenomena, highlighting that individual actions are shaped by larger social structures. For example, the ways people behave in schools, workplaces, or religious communities are influenced by the rules and norms of these institutions. Durkheim believed understanding society required looking at these external forces and their impact on human behavior.

Max Weber (1864–1920): Weber introduced a more interpretive approach to sociology. Instead of focusing only on external structures, he emphasized the meanings individuals attach to their actions. Sociology, according to Weber, studies social action by understanding people’s intentions, motivations, and interpretations of their experiences. For example, why a person participates in a protest or why a community follows certain rituals can only be understood by considering the meanings they assign to these actions.

1.2 Nature of Sociology

Sociology, as a discipline, is the scientific study of society, social relationships, and social behavior. Its nature is shaped by its purpose, scope, methods, and the unique characteristics that distinguish it from other sciences. Understanding the nature of sociology is essential for grasping how sociologists analyze social phenomena, develop theories, and apply their knowledge to real-world problems. Unlike casual observation of human behavior, sociology relies on systematic, rigorous, and evidence-based approaches to understand the complexities of social life.

a. Fieldwork as a Hallmark in Sociological Research

One of the most distinguishing aspects of sociology is its emphasis on fieldwork. Sociologists often gather data directly from the social environment through surveys, interviews, participant observation, and case studies. This focus on empirical research ensures that sociological knowledge is grounded in real-life experiences rather than mere speculation. Fieldwork allows sociologists to study social groups, communities, and institutions in their natural settings, making their findings more authentic and applicable. This hands-on approach is considered a hallmark of sociological research, demonstrating sociology’s commitment to understanding society as it truly exists.

b. Sociology as a Social Science, Not a Physical Science

Sociology differs fundamentally from physical sciences such as physics, chemistry, or biology. While physical sciences study natural phenomena governed by universal laws, sociology studies human behavior and social structures, which are influenced by culture, values, norms, and interactions. Human behavior is complex, variable, and context-dependent, which means sociologists must interpret social actions and patterns rather than rely solely on predictable laws. This makes sociology a social science, where understanding meaning, relationships, and societal processes is central.

c. Sociology as an Independent Science

Sociology is recognized as an independent science because it has its own object of study, principles, and methods. Although it shares connections with other social sciences like economics, political science, anthropology, and psychology, sociology has a distinct focus on society as a whole and social relationships within it. Its independence is reflected in its ability to analyze patterns, social institutions, and collective behavior using unique sociological frameworks and theories.

d. Sociology as Both Pure and Applied Science

Sociology has a dual character: it functions as both a pure science and an applied science. As a pure science, sociology seeks knowledge for the sake of understanding social phenomena and developing theories about human society. As an applied science, it uses this knowledge to address social problems, improve institutions, and inform policy-making. For example, sociological research can guide reforms in education, healthcare, or criminal justice, demonstrating its practical significance alongside its theoretical contributions.

e. Abstract Contents but Concrete Methods and Methodologies

While sociology deals with abstract concepts such as norms, values, social roles, and social integration, its methods and methodologies are concrete and systematic. Sociologists use observation, surveys, statistical analysis, and comparative studies to generate reliable data. This combination of abstract thinking and concrete methodology allows sociology to formulate generalizations about society while maintaining scientific rigor.

f. Sociology as a Generalizing Science

Sociology is a generalizing science, which means it seeks to identify patterns and regularities in social behavior rather than focusing solely on individual cases. By studying collective trends and social structures, sociologists develop broader theories that can explain societal processes across different contexts. Unlike particularizing sciences that may focus on isolated events or individuals, sociology aims to provide explanations that apply to groups, communities, and even entire societies.

g. Sociology as Rational, Empirical, and Holistic Science

Sociology is fundamentally rational, as it relies on logical reasoning to interpret social phenomena. It is empirical, drawing knowledge from observed evidence rather than speculation or tradition. Furthermore, sociology is holistic, as it considers society as an integrated whole, examining the interconnections between institutions, culture, social behavior, and historical context. This comprehensive approach enables sociologists to understand not only individual behavior but also the larger social forces that shape human life.

1.3 Scope of Sociology

The scope of sociology refers to the extent or boundary of the subject—what sociology studies, how it studies society, and the perspectives it uses. Over the years, scholars have debated whether sociology should be limited to studying specific aspects of society or whether it should examine society as a whole. This debate led to the emergence of two major schools of thought:

• The German or Specialist (Formalistic) School of Thought
• The French or Synthetic (Informal) School of Thought

a. German / Specialist / Formalistic School of Thought

This school of thought was developed by German sociologists such as George Simmel, Ferdinand Tönnies, and Leopold von Wiese.

They argued that sociology should be a specialized science, studying only the forms of social relationships, not their concrete content.

According to them, sociology should not involve itself in economics, politics, or psychology, but should remain focused on analyzing the purely social aspects of human interaction.

For example, concepts like cooperation, competition, conflict, subordination, and domination were seen as universal social forms that sociology should study.

The strength of this approach is that it makes sociology more systematic and scientific, but critics argue that it makes sociology too narrow and ignores the complexity of real society.

b. French / Synthetic / Informal School of Thought

This school was led by French sociologists such as Émile Durkheim and Auguste Comte.

Unlike the German school, they believed sociology should be a synthetic science, studying society in its entirety rather than restricting itself to specific forms.

Sociology, according to this perspective, is the “science of sciences”, drawing knowledge from economics, political science, anthropology, psychology, and history to create a holistic understanding of society.

Within this school of thought, sociology is divided into three main branches:

i. Social Morphology

• Social morphology studies the structure of society, just as morphology in biology studies the structure of organisms.
• It examines the size, distribution, and density of populations, as well as the ways in which these factors influence social relationships.
• For example, the difference between rural and urban communities can be understood by studying their population density, settlement patterns, and social structures.
• Social morphology thus focuses on the material and demographic basis of social life.

ii.  Social Physiology

• Social physiology deals with the functions of society, similar to how physiology studies the functions of the human body.
• It examines the workings of major social institutions such as the family, religion, education, economy, and politics.
• This branch studies how these institutions operate, how they fulfill social needs, and how they contribute to the stability and change of society.
• For example, studying how the family socializes children or how religion influences morality falls under social physiology.

iii. General Sociology

• General sociology is concerned with developing general laws and theories about society.
• It brings together findings from social morphology and social physiology to create a unified understanding of social life.
• The aim is to discover broad principles that can explain social order, change, and human behavior across different societies.
• For instance, general sociology may study how social norms emerge, why societies maintain order, or how social change occurs globally.

1.4 Relationship of Sociology with Other Social Sciences

Sociology is often called the “mother of social sciences” because it studies society as a whole, while other social sciences focus on specific aspects of human life. To understand social life in its entirety, sociology must interact with disciplines such as anthropology, economics, political science, history, and psychology. Each of these sciences contributes unique perspectives that enrich sociological knowledge.

Below are the major relationships explained:

a) Relationship between Sociology and Anthropology

Anthropology studies human beings, their evolution, culture, and social life, especially in traditional and tribal societies. Sociology, on the other hand, studies both modern and traditional societies.

Similarities:

• Both study human society, social institutions, and culture.
• Both use fieldwork and observation methods.

Differences:

• Anthropology mainly deals with primitive and ancient societies, while sociology focuses more on modern and industrial societies.
• Anthropology covers biological and cultural aspects, while sociology emphasizes social relationships.

b) Relationship between Sociology and Economics

Economics studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, while sociology studies how these economic activities affect society.

Similarities:

• Both study human welfare and social behavior.
• Economic systems (capitalism, socialism) are closely linked to social structures.

Differences:

• Economics focuses on wealth, resources, and efficiency, while sociology focuses on relationships and the social impact of economic activities.
• Economics often uses mathematical models, whereas sociology relies more on qualitative and interpretive methods.

c) Relationship between Sociology and Political Science

Political science studies government, politics, and laws, while sociology studies society as a whole, including political institutions.

Similarities:

• Both study power, authority, and leadership.
• Both analyze governance, order, and decision-making.

Differences:

• Political science focuses mainly on the state and government.
• Sociology studies political institutions as part of the larger social structure.

d) Relationship between Sociology and History

History studies past events, while sociology studies present society. However, they are interconnected.

Similarities:

• Both study human activities and social institutions.
• Historical events (wars, revolutions, reforms) help us understand present society.

Differences:

• History is descriptive and chronological, focusing on what happened in the past.
• Sociology is analytical and generalizing, focusing on patterns, causes, and laws of society.

e) Relationship between Sociology and Psychology

Psychology studies the human mind and behavior, while sociology studies groups, social interactions, and institutions.

Similarities:

• Both study human behavior and its causes.
• Social psychology serves as a bridge between them.

Differences:

• Psychology studies the individual’s thoughts, emotions, and personality.
• Sociology studies collective behavior, group interactions, and institutions.