5.1 Eastern thought:

Based on their origination, thought can be classified into two broad categories: eastern and western thought. Eastern thought includes the various philosophies of Asia, including Indian philosophy, Chinese philosophy, Iranian philosophy etc. Eastern thought, at least since the rise of European influence in Asia, is often associated with western philosophies. However, before the global influence of European and American technological and scientific education, the idea of philosophy as rigorous science is not found in traditional eastern writings, which are for the most part religious and mythical. Some of the important eastern philosophies are presented as follows:

Chinese Thought:

Philosophy has had a tremendous effect on Chinese civilization, and East Asia as a whole. Many of the great philosophical schools were formulated during the spring and autumn periods and warring States period, which came to be known as the Hundred Schools of Thought. The four most influential of these were Confucianism, Taoism, Monism, and Legalism. Later on during the Tang Dynasty, Buddhism from India also became a prominent philosophical and religious discipline. Like Western thought, Chinese philosophy covers a broad and complex range of thought, possessing a multitude of schools that address every branch and subject area of philosophy.

Indian thought:

The term Indian philosophy (Sanskrit: Darshana), may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in the Indian subcontinent, including Hindu philosophy, Buddhist philosophy, and Jain Philosophy. Having the same or rather intertwined origins, all of these philosophies have a common underlying theme of Dharma, and similarly attempt to explain the attainment of emancipation. Some of the main Indian philosophies are given below:

        A. Hindu Philosophy:

Hinduism (;gftg wd{or a perennial faith) is one of the oldest major world religions. Hinduism is characterized by a diverse array of religious belief systems, practices and scriptures. It has its origin in ancient Vedic culture at least as far back as 1500 BC. Hinduism rests on the spiritual bedrock of the Vedas, and their mystic issue, the Upanishads, Common to Hindus belief is in Dharma, reincarnation, karma, and Moksha (Liberation) of every soul through a variety of moral, action-based, and meditative Yoga’s.

Hindu thought is not a single philosophy. It is divided into six “Astika” (Theist) schools of thought, who accept the Vedas as supreme revealed scriptures, and three Nastika (Atheteist) schools, which do not accept the Vedas as supreme. These schools are presented as follows:

I. Astika (Theist) schools

1.Sankhya: Sankhya the oldest Hindu Philosophy postulates that everything in reality sterns from “Purusha (soul) and Prakriti (Nature). There are many living souls (purusha) and they possess consciousness. Prakriti consists of three qualities or “Gunas”, ie. Activity (Rajas), Inactivity (Tamas), and steadiness (Sattva). The world is to evolve because of interaction between Prakriti and purusha. Liberation of the soul happens when it realizes that it is beyond these three qualities.

2.Nyaya:  The Nyaya School is based on the Nyaya sutras, written by Aksapada Gautama. The most important contribution made by the school is its methodology. This methodology is based on a system of logic that has subsequently been adopted by the majority of the Indian schools. According to Nyaya, there are exactly four sources of Knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. Knowledge obtained through each of these is either valid or invalid. Nyaya developed several criteria of validity. In this sense, Nyaya is probably the closest Indian equivalent to analytic philosophy.

3.Yoga: The yoga philosophical system is closely allied with the Sankhya school. The Yoga school was expounded by Patanjali in his Yog Sutras. The yoga philosopher aims at developing the capacity to concentrate his mind on one subject on the exclusion of everything else and ultimately to concentrate it on ‘nothing’. The eight steps of Yoga are:

1. Yama (The five ‘abstentions’): Non-violence, non-lying, non-covetousness, non-sensuality, and non-possessiveness.
2. Niyama (The five “observances”): purity, contentment, austerity, study, and surrender to god.
3. Asana: Literally means “seat”, and in Patanjali sutras. It refers to the seated position used for meditation.
4. Pranayama (suspending breath): Prana or breath, “ayama” or to restrain or stop. It is also interpreted as control of the life force.
5. Pratyahara (abstraction): withdrawal of the sense organs from external objects.
6. Dharana (concentration): Fixing the attention on a single object.
7. Dhyan (Meditation): Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation.
8. Samadhi (Liberation): merging consciousness with the object of meditation

4.Vaisheshika: The Vaisheshika School was founded by kanada and postulates an atomic pluralism. All objects in the physical universe are reducible to certain types of atoms, and Brahman is regarded as the fundamental force that causes consciousness in these atoms.

5.Purva Mimamsa:  The main objective of the Purva Mimamsa School was to establish the authority of the Vedas. Consequently, this school’s most valuable contribution to Hinduism was its formulation of the rules of Vedic interpretation. Its adherents believe that one must have unquestionable faith in the Vedas and perform the Yajnas, or fire-sacrifices, regularly. They believe in the power of the mantras and Yajnas to sustain all the activity of the universe. In keeping with this belief, they place great emphasis on Dharma, which consists of the performance of Vedic rituals.

6.Uttar Mimamsa: The Uttara Mimamsa School, commonly known as the Vedanta, concentrates on the philosophical teachings of the Upanishads rather than on the ritualistic injunction of the Brahmanas based on four Vedas (Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva). Vedas emphasize on “karma Kanda” greeting society to self-knowledge through the Brahmins. Vedanta is the essence of the Vedas, as summarized in the form of Upanishads. The most influential Vedanta thought, based on the Upanishads, considers the consciousness of the “self-Jeevantma” to be continuous with and exactly alike the consciousness of the Supreme or “Brahman paramatma”.

II. Nastika (Atheist) Schools

1. Buddhist philosophy:

Buddhism is a system of religious beliefs based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama. Buddhism is a non-theistic religion, one whose tenets are not especially concerned with the existence or non-existence of a God or gods. The Buddha himself expressly disavowed any special divine status or inspiration, and said that anyone anywhere could achieve all the insight that he had. Most Buddhist sects believe on Karma, a cause-and-effect relationship between all that has been done and all that will be done. Events that occur are held to be the direct result of previous events. One effect of Karma is rebirth. At death, the Karma from a given life determines the nature of the next life’s existence. The ultimate goal of a Buddhist practitioner is to eliminate Karma (both good and bad), end the cycle of rebirth and suffering, and attain Nirvana, usually translated as enlightenment.

2. Jainism

Jain philosophy deals extensively with the problems of metaphysics, reality, cosmology, ontology, epistemology and divinity. Jainism is essentially a trans-theistic religion of ancient India. The distinguishing features of Jain philosophy are its belief on independent existence of soul and matter, denial of creative and omnipotent God, potency of Karma, eternal and uncreated universe, a strong emphasis on non-violence, accent on relativity and multiple facets of truth, and morality and ethics based on liberation of soul. Jain philosophy attempts to explain the rationale of being and existence, the nature of the Universe and its constituents, the nature of bondage and the means to achieve liberation.

3. Charvaka philosophy

Charvaka, also known as Lokayata was a materialist and atheist school of thought with ancient roots in India. It proposed a system of ethics based on rational thought. This philosophy stresses more on individual morality than divine morality.

          VEDIC EDUCATION -GURUKULA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION

A. INTRODUCTION

The education system which was evolved first in ancient India is known as the Vedic system of education. In other words, the ancient systems of education were based on the Vedas and therefore it was given the name of Vedic Educational System. Ancient education emerged from the Vedas. They are supposed to be the source of Indian philosophy of life. Vedas means ‘to know’

Vedas occupy a very important place in the Indian life. The basis of Indian culture lies in the Vedas which are four in number – Rigveda, Samveda, Yajurveda, and Atharavaveda. Some scholars have sub divided Vedic Educational period into Rig Veda period, Brahmani period, Upanishada period, Sutra (Hymn) period, Smriti period etc but all these periods, due to predominance of the Vedas, there was no change in the aims and ideals of educations. That is why, the education of these periods, is studied under Vedic period. The education system that prevailed during the Vedic times had some unique characteristics. Education was confined to the upper castes, and to those who were Brahmacharis. In Indian tradition, a person’s life cycle is divided into four stages of which ‘Brahma Charis’ is the second phase. This is the time set aside for learning and acquiring skills. During Vedic period, most of the upper castes, which were either Brahmins or Kshatriyas, had their education in a unique system called ‘Gurukuls’. The most important contribution of ancient India not only for India but also for the world is in the field of education. It may also be remembered that education is not an abstract term. It is manifested in the cultural economic, individual, philosophical, scientific, social and spiritual advancement. In other words, education is the means for developing the mind for the betterment of the individual and society. In the words of Albert Einstein, “We owe a lot to the Indians who taught us how to count without which no worthwhile scientific discovery could have made.” This word shows the importance of Vedic period and ancient Indian education.

B. MAIN FEATURES OF THE VEDIC EDUCATION

In ancient India teaching was considered to be holy duty which a Brahman was bound to discharge irrespective of consideration of the fee teacher were expected to devote their lives to the cause of teaching in the missionary spirit of self-sacrifice, and the society laid down the principal that both the public and state should help the learned teachers &
educational institutions very liberally. Society realized that Vidyadana” or the gift in the cause of education was to be the best of gifts, possessing a higher religious merit than even the gift of land. On the occasion of religious feats, students and teachers were invited and donations were given liberally.

1. Immediate aim:
The important aims of education in Vedic period are:
∗ Education for other world lines.
∗ Character formation.
∗ All round development for Personality.
∗ Intellectual Development
∗ Spiritual Development
∗ Preparation for living
∗ Preserving and Transmitting Culture
∗ Education only a means and not an end in itself.
2. Curriculum
1. Vedic Literature:
• The Rig-Veda.
• The Yajurveda.
• The Sam Veda
• The Atharvaveda
2. Vedangas.
3. Hetuvidya.
4. Silpa- vidya.
5. Physical Education.
6. Stress on other worldliness.
3. Methods of Instruction:
The important methods of learning are:
• Listening (Sravana is listening to words texts as they uttered by the teacher.
• Deliberation (Manana or Chintan is the process of deliberation or reflection of the topic taught.)
• Meditation (Nidhidhyarama represents the highest stage.).
• Illustration
• Project Method
4. Duration of Education
In the house of the teacher, the student was required to obtain education upto the age of 24, after which he was expected to enter domestic life. Students were divided into three categories:
(a) Those obtaining education up to the age of 24-Vasu.
(b) Those obtaining education up to the age of 36-Rudra.
(c) Those obtaining education up to the age of 48-Aaditya.
5. Role of Teacher
The teacher or acarya in the Vedic age was responsible not only in imparting knowledge – religious as well as secular, but also in molding the character and personality of the pupils of his asrama.  The acarya of the gurukul system was an affectionate father, an effective teacher, and a person of high moral and spiritual qualities.  He maintained discipline by the influence of his personality.  He was sincere and honest to his work. He taught with his heart and soul.  He also performed the functions of a householder performing the five daily yajnas and observing vows.  He led a disciplined life.
6. Role of Mother in Education
A mother should impart education to her children so as to broaden their horizon. At this stage good manners are to be taught so that the children behave properly with the elders and in assemblies.
7. The student
 The student in the Vedic school was called Brahma Charis.  He had to dedicate his life for the sake of gaining knowledge, leading an enlightened life.  In his formative life he must lead an austere and disciplined life. The Upanishads clearly describe the qualities required for a Brahmacarin. A student had to be calm, patient, self-restrained and self-denying.  The student’s prayer included his longing for the realization of a full life. Thus the main aim of the Vedic educational system was to produce a rational individual, free from passions, full of universal affection, continuously self educating and striving to reach the highest goal.
7. Female Education
During the Vedic age women were given full status with men. For girls also the Upanayana (initiation ceremony) was performed and after that their education began. They were also required to lead a life of celibacy during education. They used to study the Vedas and other religious and philosophy books; they were free to participate in religious and philosophical discourses. Many ‘Sanhitas’ of Rigveda were composed by women. In Gurukuls the gurus treated male and female pupils alike and made no distinction what-so-ever.

CHARACTERISTICS OF VEDIC EDUCATION
The important characteristics of Vedic education are:
• Vedas are the eldest World Literature.
• Suitable age of education.
• Rig-Veda is the mirror of Ancient Indian culture and civilization.
• Perfection in Education.
• The main aim of Vedic education was to liberate the soul from worldly bondages.
• Equal rights to education for all.
• Ideal of teacher.
• Education standard in the family.
• Equal opportunity to gain education.
• Sanskrit as the Medium of Instruction.
• Education is through travel.

AGENCIES OF VEDIC EDUCATION
There are three agencies of education: –
1. Guru Kula
2. Parishad
3. Sammelan

1.Gurukulas
Gurukuls were the dwelling houses of gurus situated in natural surroundings away from noise and bustle of cities. Parents sent their wards at the age of five years to nine years according to their castes after celebrating their Upanayan Sanskar. Pupils lived under the roof of their guru called ‘antevasin’ under the direct supervision of their Guru. Gurukula as the name indicates was the family of the teacher and his residence where the students used to stay during the period of study. Gradually, the Gurukula were extended to include a number of buildings. However the institution was built up around the family of teacher. The primary duty of the student was to serve the teacher and his family. The students were like sons of the teacher and the whole institution lived like family.
2. Parishads
Parishads were bigger educational institutions where several teachers used to teach different subjects. This may be compared to a college Parishad in Upanishads, has been used for a conference of learned men, assembled for deliberations upon philosophical problems. Later on the ‘Parishads’ were set up at the places where learned men lived in good number and gradually these institutions became permanent centres of imparting knowledge. In the words of Dr. R. K. Mukherjee Parishad correspondences to University of students belonging to different colleges.
3. Sammelan
Sammelan literally means getting together for a particular purpose. In this type of educational institutions scholars gathered at one place for learned discussions and competitions generally on the invitation of the king. Scholars were appropriately rewarded.]

CONCLUSION
In Vedic era education had the prominent place in society. It was considered as pious and important for society.  Vedic age had, thus, a system of education in which “hearing, chanting and memorizing, played a great part, assimilation of idea took place through a well- planned life of service to teacher, contemplation, all under his guidance. Education was
must for everybody for becoming cultured. Education was the fully capable of development of physical and intellectual and character development, development of civis, social, moral, and spiritual values, social efficiency and happiness, preservation and spread of culture, infusion of piety, and religiousness and development of best type of personality. Relationship between Guru and pupils were very cordial during Vedic and Post- Vedic period. By means of education efforts were being made to infuse ―Satyam Shivam and Sundaram inside the students. A great importance was attached to Veda in education system, self-study Swadhyaya was considered more important during that period. The Vedic period favored women education.

       5.2 Western Thought: concept and implication

Western philosophies have their root in ancient European civilization of Greece and Rome. The introduction of the terms “Philosopher” and “Philosophy” has been ascribed to the Greek thinker Pythagoras. The history of western philosophy is customarily divided into six periods. Ancient philosophy, medieval philosophy, Renaissance philosophy, Early and late Modern philosophy and contemporary philosophy are illustrated in western philosophy. A short description of Babylonian philosophy and these related periods are presented below:

1. Babylonian Philosophy:

The origins of Babylonian philosophy can be traced back to the wisdom of early Mesopotamia, which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularly ethics, in the forms of dialectic, dialogues, epic, poetry, folklore, hymns, lyrics, prose and proverbs. The reasoning and rationality of the Babylonians text “Dialog of Pessimism” contains similarities to the agonistic thought of the sophists, the Heraclitean doctrine of contrasts, and the dialogues of Plato. Thales is known to have studied philosophy in Mesopotamia.

1. Ancient philosophy (600 B.C – 500 A.D)

Ancient philosophy is the philosophy of the Greco-Roman world from the sixth century B.C. to the fourth century A.D. it is usually divided into three periods; the pre-Socratic period, the periods of Plato and Aristotle, and the post-Aristotelian period. The themes of ancient philosophy are: understanding the fundamental causes and principles of the universe; explaining it in an uniform way; the epistemological problem of reconciling the diversity and change of the natural universe, with the possibility of obtaining fixed and certain knowledge about it, questions about things which cannot be perceived by the senses, such as numbers, elements, universals, and gods, the analysis of patterns of reasoning and argument; the nature of the good life and the importance of understanding and knowledge in order to pursue it.

The earliest Greek philosophers were the Ionic School, materialist philosophers, mathematicians, geographers and astronomers of the 6^th century BC including Thales, his disciples Anaximander and Anaximenes, Heraclitus etc. Xenophanes, Parmenides and Zeno of Elea are famous philosophers of 5-6^th century BC. There were a group of philosophers called as sophists at this time. The sophists, professional “Teachers of wisdom” of the 5^th century BC included Protagoras, Hippias of Elis etc. Pythagoras was an influential philosopher of 4^th century BC. Leucippus and Democritus were the founders of Atomism, the view that matter was not infinitely divisible, but was composed of small “atoms”. It developed a view which is identified as Materialism.

Socrates (469-399) initiated the turn away from the earlier materialist doctrines to a logical system. Plato (428-348 BC) was his pupil. His works are known only via Plato and Aristotle. Aristotle was the greatest of all Greek philosophers, founder of logic and many branches of science that was educated in Plato’s school.

1. Medieval Philosophy (500 A.D- 1350 A.D)

Medieval philosophy is the philosophy of Western Europe and the Middle East during what is now known as the medieval era or the middle ages, roughly extending from the fall of the Roman Empire to the Renaissance. Medieval philosophy is defined partly by the rediscovery and further development of classical Greek and Hellenistic philosophy, and partly by the need to address theological problems and to integrate sacred doctrine. Some problems discussed throughout this period are the relation of faith to reason, the existence and unity of God, the object of theology and metaphysics, the problems of knowledge, of universals, and of individuation. Philosophers from the middle Ages include Augustine of Hippo, Boethius, Peter Abelard, Roger Bacon, Thomas Aquinas etc.

1. Renaissance (1350-1600 A.D)

The Renaissance (Rebirth) was a period of transition between the theological philosophy of the Middle Ages and modern thought, in which Latin began to lose its role of the standard language for philosophical discussion. The study of classics and of the human arts, such as history and literature enjoyed a new popularity. The concept of man became the central object of philosophical reflection.

With the loosening of theological criticism on though, the Renaissance renewed interest in natural philosophy via Nicholas of Kues, Giordano Bruno and Francis Bacon. This coincided with a revival of magic, hidden easy of knowing and mastering nature. Ethical and political philosophy was revived by the work of Machiavelli and in the utopias of Thomas More and Francis Bacon. Within Christianity itself, these new movements fitted closely with the Reformation.

1. Early modern philosophy (1600 A.D. – 1800 A.D)

Modern philosophy begins with the revival of skepticism and the rise of modern physical science. Philosophy in this period centers on the relation between experience and reality, the ultimate origin of knowledge, the nature of the mind and its relation to the body, the implications of the new natural sciences for free will and God, and the emergence of a secular basis for moral and political philosophy.

Main figures of this period includes Hobbes, Descartes, Locke, Spinoza, Leibniz, Berkeley, Rousseau, Hume, and Kant, Chronologically, this era begins in the 17^th and 18^th centuries, and is generally considered to end with Kant‘s systematic attempt to reconcile. Newtonian physics explained with traditional metaphysical topics.

1. Nineteenth century philosophy

Later modern philosophy is usually considered to begin after the philosophy of Immanuel Kant at the beginning of the 19^th century. German Idealists, such as Fichte, Hegel, and Schelling expanded on the work of Kant by maintaining that the world is constituted by a rational mind-like process, and as such is entirely knowable. Rejecting idealism, other philosophers, many working from outside the university, initiated lines of thought that would  be occupy academic philosophy in the early and mid-20^th century:

• Frege’s work in logic and Sedgwick’s work in ethics provided the tools for early analytic philosophy.
• Husserl initiated the school of phenomenology.
• Peirce and William James initiated the school of pragmatism.
• Kierkegaard and Nietzsche laid the groundwork for existentialism.
• Karl Marx began the study of social materialist philosophy.

1. Contemporary Philosophy (1900- present)

Within the last century, Philosophy has increasingly become an activity practiced within the university, and accordingly it has grown more specialized and more distinct from the natural sciences. Much of philosophy in this period concerns itself with explaining the relation between the theories of the natural sciences and the ideas of the humanities or common sense.

In the Anglophone world, analytic philosophy became the dominant school. In the first half of the century, it was more or less identical to logical positivism, united by the notion that philosophical problems could and should be solved by attention to logic and language. In the latter half of the twentieth century, analytic philosophy diffused into a wide variety of disparate philosophical views, only loosely united by historical lines of influence and a self-identified commitment to clarity and rigor. Since roughly 1960, analytic philosophy has shown a revival of interest in the history of philosophy, as well as attempts to integrate philosophical work with scientific results, especially in psychology and cognitive science. In addition, the experimental philosophy movement has sought to bring social science research techniques to the field.

On continental Europe, no single school or temperament enjoyed dominance. The flight of the logical positivists from central Europe during the 1930s and 1940s, however, and an emphasis on the humanities, broadly construed, figures prominently in what is usually called “Continental philosophy”. Twentieth century movements such as phenomenology, existentialism, hermeneutics, structuralism, and post structuralism are included within this loose category.

Major philosophers of the twentieth century include Jean Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, whose work in metaphysics and absurdism contrasted Nietzsche’s views, Ludwig Wittgenstein worked mostly in logic.

@ klZrd]nL bz{g (Western Philosophy)

klZrd]nL hut\df pTklQ eO{ ljsf; x’Fb} cfPsf] bz{gnfO{ klZrd]nL bz{g elgG5 .  klZrd]nL bz{gsf] P]ltxfl;s ljsf;qmdsf] kl/ro o; k|sf/ 5 .

s_ k|frLg sfn (Ancient Period)

k|frLg sfnsf] bfz{lgs ljj]rgfsf] >]o o’gfgnfO{ lbOPsf] 5 . ;Eotfsf] ljsf;qmd / bz{gsf] ljsf;qmdsf] klxnf] cfwf/ o’gfgnfO{ dflgG5 . /f]dg bz{g / ;Eotfsf] cfwf/ klg o’gfgnfO{ g} dflgPsf] 5 . ctM k|frLg bz{gnfO{ o’gfgL bz{g klg elgG5 .  k|frLg bz{gnfO{ ;f]qm]6; k”j{sf], ;f]qm]6;, Kn]6f] / Pl/:6f]6nsf ;dosf] / Pl/:6f]6n kl5sf] u/L tLg efudf afF8g pko’Qm x’G5 . ;f]qm]6; eGbf klxn]sf] bfz{lgsx?df kfOyfuf]/;, lx/flSn6;\, k/d]gfO8;, PgfS;fuf]/; / k|f]6fuf]/;nfO{ d’Vo ?kdf dflgG5 . logLx?sf] ljrf/x?sf] lrgf/L lgDgfg’;f/ 5 .

c_ kfOyfuf]/; M kfOyfuf]/; k”j{hGddf ljZjf; ub{Yo] . cfTdfnfO{ cd/ dfGby] . kfOyfuf]/; Ps pRr sf]6Lsf ul0ft1 / wfld{s JolQm lyP . pgn] ul0ft / O{Zj/;DaGwL ljwfdf ;dGjo :yflkt ug]{ k|of; u/] . pgsf] ljrf/ lyof]— ;a} j:t’x? ;+Vofx? x’g\ (All things are numbers) kfOyfuf]/;n] lj:tf/ u/]sf] ul0ftsf] k|of]u cfh klg k|rngdf 5 .

cf_ lx/flSn6;M lx/flSn6; ;fj{ef}lds kl/jt{gdf ljZjf; ub{y] . pgsf] egfO lyof] ;j} j:t’x? jl/jt{g x’G5g\ (All things are following) lx/flSn6;n] ;+;f/sf] d”n tTj clUgnfO{ dfg]sf lyP . kl/jt{gsf ;DaGwdf pgsf] egfO{ lyof] ltdL Pp6f gbLdf b’O{ k6s k|j]z ug{ ;Sb}gf} lsgsL ltdL;+u ;w} gofF kfgL k|jflxt eO/x]sf] x’G5 . (You cannot step twice into the same river, for fresh waters are ever flowing in upon you).

O{_ k/d]gf8;\M k/d]gfO8;sf ljrf/df s’g}klg a:t’ kl/jlt{t 5}g . lx/flSn6; ;fj{ef}lds kl/jt{gdf ljZjf; ub{y] eg] k/d]gfO8; ;fj{ef}lds :yfloTj / zf:jt ;Todf ljZjf; ub{y]  .

O_ PgfS;fuf]/; M PgfS;fuf]/;sf ljrf/df ;+;f/sf ;j} j:t’ jf kbfy{ ljefHo 5g\ / k|To]s c0f’df kbfy{sf s]xL g s]xL c+z jf u’0f ljBdfg x’G5g\ . PgfS;fuf]/; klxn]sf ljåfgx?n] k|fs[lts hut\sf] d”n tTjsf ?kdf s;}n] kfgL / s;}n] clUgnfO{ dfg]sf] kfOG5 eg] logn] k|fs[lts hut\sf] sf/s tTjsf ?kdf r]tgnfO{ dfg]sf 5g\ .

p_ k|f]6fuf]/; M k|f]6fuf]/; u|L;sf ;f]lkmi6 lyP . ;+;f/sf ;a} j:t’x?sf] dfkb08 dflg; g} xf] . (Man is the measure of all things) eGg] pgsf] d’Vo cfzo lyof] . k|f]6fuf]/;n] j:t’lgi7 ;TonfO{ OGsf/ u/] / ;TonfO{ dfgjlgld{t egL JofVof u/] . o;kl5 ljZjk|Voft bfz{lgsx?df ;f]qm]6;, Kn]6f] / Pl/:6f]6nnfO{ dflgG5 .

v_ dWosfn (Medieval Period)

Pl/:6f]6n kl5sf / dWosfnsf k|l;4 bfz{lgssf ?kdf Knf]l6g;, ;}G6 cufli6g, / ;]G6 yf]d; PlSjgf;nfO{ dflgG5 . logLx?sf bz{gsf] kl/ro o; k|sf/ 5 .

s_ Knf]l6g;

v_ ;]G6 culi6g

u_ ;}G6 yf]d; PlSjgf;

u_ cfw’lgs sfn (Modern Period)

klZrd]nL bz{gsf] cfw’lgs sfnsf] z’?jft !% cf} zftflAbb]lv z’? x’G5 . o; sfnb]lv klZrd]nL bz{gaf6 y’k|} bfz{lgsx? hGdG5g\ h;dWo] lgDg bfz{lgsx? tn pNn]v ul/G5 .

1. Erasmus
2. Bacon
3. Descartes
4. Spinoza
5. Leibniz
6. John Locke
7. Barkeley
8. David Hume
9. Jean Jack Rousseau
10. Hegal
11. Karl Marx, William James and John Dewey